ResearchersandTheorists

Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939)

Austrian physician and psychoanalyst. Freud offered a series of extended accounts of the mechanism of repression, by means of which the motives of human behavior are unrecognizably disguised even from their agents. A series of lectures entitled Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse (The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis) (1917) {at Amazon.com} offer a summary of his methods and results. In Die Traumdeutung (The Interpretation of Dreams) (1900) {at Amazon.com}, Freud proposed the analysis of dreams as a method of discovering the substantive content of the individual unconscious. In Die Zukunft einer Illusion (The Future of an Illusion) {at Amazon.com}, he offered a naturalistic account of religious belief.

Recommended Reading: The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud, ed. by A. A. Brill (Modern Library, 1995) {at Amazon.com}; The Freud Reader, ed. by Peter Gay (Norton, 1995) {at Amazon.com}; The Cambridge Companion to Freud, ed. by Jerome Neu (Cambridge, 1992) {at Amazon.com}; Paul Ricoeur, Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation, tr. by Denis Savage (Yale, 1986) {at Amazon.com}; Anthony Storr, Freud (Oxford, 1989) {at Amazon.com}; and Donald Levy, Freud Among the Philosophers: The Psychoanalytic Unconscious and Its Philosophical Critics (Yale, 1996) {at Amazon.com}.

Also see OCP on Freud, psychoanalysis, and dreams, IEP, Jim Hopkins, C. George Boeree, BGHT, Timothy Leuers, ODSt, Andrew Brook, ColE, noesis, ODQ, Austria, Freud, ELC, Andy Blunden, WW20th, Österreich-Lexikon, and MacE

Adler, Alfred (1870-1937)

Austrian psychiatrist; author of such books as Studie über Minderwertigkeit von Organen (Study of Organ Inferiority and its Psychical Compensation) (1907), Praxis und Theorie der Individualpsychologie (Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology) (1918) {at Amazon.com}, and Der Sinn des Lebens (What Life Should Mean to You) (1934) {at Amazon.com}. Influenced by the philosophy of Hans Vaihinger, Adler's "individual psychology" focussed on the efforts people invariably make in order to compensate for their (self-perceived) inferiority to others, whether it originally arose from a specific physical defect, relative position in the family constellation, particular experiences of humiliation, or a general lack of social feeling for others. Adlerian theory and practice have proven especially productive in application to the lives of children.

Recommended Reading: Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: A Systematic Presentation in Selections from His Writings (Harpercollins, 1989) {at Amazon.com}; Superiority and Social Interest: A Collection of Later Writings, ed. by Heinz L. Ansbacher and Rowena R. Ansbacher (Norton, 1979) {at Amazon.com}; and Harold H. Mosak and Michael Maniacci, A Primer of Adlerian Psychology: The Analytic-Behavioral-Cognitive Psychology of Alfred Adler (Brunner/Mazel, 1999) {at Amazon.com}.

Also see C. George Boeree, BGHT on Individual Psychology and The Inferiority Complex, ColE, ODQ, ELC, Österreich-Lexikon, MacE, ODSt, noesis, WW20th, and Henry T. Stein.

William James (1842-1909)

William James was raised in a highly intellectual household: his father Henry, Sr. was a Swedenborgian theologian, his sister Alice wrote lengthy, literary diaries, and his brother Henry, Jr. became a renowned novelist. William himself studied art and geology before recieving a professional medical degree from Harvard university, where he taught for thirty-five years. Despite an energetic constitution, James struggled throughout life with such severe bouts of hypochondria, melancholy, and depression that he regarded himself as persisting only by means of a deliberate effort of will. Upon his death, however, a friend expressed great respect for James's wisdom, integrity, and equanimity.

Work in psychology with Hugo Munsterburg at Harvard resulted in publication of James's Principles of Psychology (1890), the classic exposition of a discipline in transition from reliance upon anecdotal introspection toward its experimental foundations as a natural science. James himself emphasized the notion of the individual self or person as a continuous "stream of consciousness" capable of exercising free will.

In Pragmatism: A New Name for some Old Ways of Thinking (1907) James offered significant expansions of C.S. Peirce's philosophy of pragmatism. He not only accepted Peirce's method of using pragmatic meaning to resolve dispute, but also spelled out a pragmatic theory of truth as whatever is "expedient in the way of our thinking." During the same period, James wrote the mature expression of his epistemological principles that was published posthumously in Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912). There, his application of empirical principles results in neutral monism as a foundation for a phenomenalist analysis of human experience.

Since for James it was the consequences of believing that matter, he argued in "The Will to Believe" (1897) that belief must remain an individual process and that we may rationally choose to believe some crucial propositions even though they lie beyond the reach of reason and evidence. This position has important implications for religious convictions in particular, which James explored in detail in The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902).

A frequent commentator on public affairs, James proposed a system of national voluntary service in The Moral Equivalent of War (1906).

Richard Giulianotti

Senior Lecturer

Tel (01224) 272773

e-mail: soc063@abdn.ac.uk

Dr Richard Giulianotti has been employed full-time in the Department of Sociology since 1990, initially as researcher and latterly as senior lecturer. His main research areas are in the sociologies of sport and leisure, lifestyle and cultural practices, research methods (especially qualitative approaches), social theory, and crime and deviance.

Dr Giulianotti is a coordinator of the first year course 'Introductory Sociology 2' in which he tutors and lectures; and he coordinates his fourth year, senior honours option on 'Sport and Leisure'. He also tutors at third year level on the 'Modern Social Theory' course, and lectures and tutors prospective undergraduate students taking the 'Access to Degree Studies' course.

Dr Giulianotti is an International Editor on the interdisciplinary journal 'Culture, Sport and Society', and an editor of the forthcoming 'Global Sport Cultures' book series for Berg publishers. He has written numerous articles for refereed journals and books, and presented conference papers throughout Europe, in North and South America, and in Australia and New Zealand. He has published six books including Football: a sociology of the global game (Polity, 1999); Football, Cultures and Identities (Macmillan, 1999) and Entering the Field: new perspectives on world football (Berg, 1997). Dr Giulianotti is a regular contributor to The Herald, Scotland's premier broadsheet newspaper. He is currently working on further research, and this will result in books on sport and social theory, the body in sport, and sport and social conflicts. Since 1990, he has composed and submitted successful research grant applications totaling over £105,000.

Selected Publications

Books

Football : a sociology of the global game, Cambridge, Polity, 1999.

(& G. Armstrong) (eds) Football, Cultures and Identities, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1999.

(& G. Finn) (eds) Football Culture: local conflicts, global visions, London, Frank Cass (in press).

(& G. Armstrong) (eds) Entering the Field: new perspectives on world football, Oxford, Berg, 1997.

(& N. Bonney, M. Hepworth) (eds) Football, Violence and Social Identity, London, Routledge, 1994

(& J. Williams) (eds) Game without Frontiers: football, identity and modernity, Aldershot, Avebury, 1994.

Refereed Papers

'Ungentlemanly Conduct: football hooligans, the media and the construction of notoriety', Football Studies, 1(2), 1998.

'Drugs and the Media in the Era of Postmodernity', Media, Culture & Society, 19(3), 1997.

'All the Olympians, a thing never known again?: Reflections on Irish football culture and the 1994 World Cup Finals', Irish Journal of Sociology, Vol.6, 1996.

'Back to the Future: an ethnography of Ireland's Football Fans at the 1994 World Cup Finals in the USA', International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 31(3), 1996.

'Football and the Politics of Carnival: an ethnographic study of Scottish fans in Sweden', International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 30(2), 1995.

'Participant Observation and Research into Football Hooliganism: some reflections on the problems of entrée and everyday risks from a comparative study', Sociology of Sport Journal, 12(1), 1995.

'Scoring Away from Home: a statistical study of Scotland football fans at international matches in Romania and Sweden', International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 29(2), 1994.

'Scotland's Tartan Army in Italy: the case for the carnivalesque', Sociological Review, 39(3), 1991.

Conference Papers

'Sport and Social Development in Africa: some major human rights issues', keynote address to the international conference How You Play The Game: Sport and Human Rights, The Human Rights Council of Australia, Bondi Beach, Sydney, Australia, 1-3 September 1999.

'From Local Culture to Transnational Spectacle: the end of the sporting community?', paper to the Sport and the Community symposium, University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia, 25 March 1999.

'Football Codes in the Postmodern Milieu', keynote opening speech to the conference Football and Culture, Victoria University, 24-27 June 1998.

'Guarani and Mate: football history and culture in the small South American nations of Uruguay and Paraguay', paper to the NASSS Annual Conference, Toronto, 5-8 November 1997.

'Sport and Popular Media: a cultural studies analysis of fanzines and "new football writing"', invited lecture to Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Buenos Aires; and to the Department of Anthropology, University of Rio de Janeiro, April 1997.

'Sport, Participation and Identity: the cases of Scotland and the Republic of Ireland', paper to the annual conference of Unione Italiana Sport per Tutti (UISP), Montecatini, Italy, 8-11 December, 1994.

'Casuals and Carnival: with Scottish and Irish Football Supporters Overseas', paper to the international symposium Youth, Violence and Sport (Soccer), University of California at Santa Barbara, July 6-8, 1994.

'Scotland, Drink and Drugs: another generation of casualties?', paper to the symposium Drug, Dopage and Performance, EUI/Association Descartes, Paris, France, 3 December, 1991

Nick Hornby

Nick Hornby was born in 1957, and is the author of: Fever Pitch, High Fidelity, About a Boy, and How to Be Good. He also edited the collection of short stories, Speaking with the Angel and is the pop music critic for the New Yorker.

In 1999, Hornby was awarded the E.M.Forster award by the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He is a graduate of Cambridge University and was a teacher before turning to writing full-time. Before turning his attention to fiction, Hornby was a regular contributor to Esquire, the London Sunday Times, and The Independent. He has also written for GQ, Elle, Time, The New Republic, Vogue, and Premiere .

Two of Nick Hornby's previous books were number-one bestsellers in England: the 1995 novel High Fidelity, a critic's favorite on both sides of the Atlantic; and his first book, the memoir Fever Pitch. Film rights for High Fidelity were bought by Disney's Touchstone Pictures, and the major motion picture starring John Cusack was a hit both in the U.S. and abroad. A film version of Fever Pitch, with a screenplay by Hornby, was released in England by Channel Four Films. Robert DeNiro's Tribeca Films and New Line recently paid nearly three million dollars for the screen rights to About a Boy.

Nick Hornby lives in North London, within walking distance of his favorite football team, the Arsenal.

Go to Nick's home page Click on the previous to go to Nick Hornby's Site. If you haven't read or watched 'Fever Pitch' then do so, it is a excellent sociological view of football and very funny too!

Robin Manser

Robin Manser was born on 11th December 1958. After many years of various employment and living in Germany and Africa, as a mature student, in 1992, he studied for a degree in Psychology with Health Studies and was rewarded with an upper second class degree (two-one to you and me).

Robin Manser was always interested in group disorder and as an avid football fan, he realised that football hooliganism was to him a misunderstood phenomena. In 1998 he sent 88 letters out requesting funding to do a Masters degree at the university of Huddersfield in Social Research and Evaluation with a view to dispelling the stereotypical myth of age and class etc of the hooligan.

Amazingly, with 87 rejections he finally gets a letter from FIFA who awarded him the first ever Scholarship created out of the retirement of Joao Havelange, the president of FIFA. This scholarship would work in conjunction with the university of Neuchatel and the International Centre for Sports Studies. Robin Manser's work looking at the rivalry between Manchester United and Leeds United fans would show that there was a myth of age range, class etc. of the so called 'hooligan'.

Robin Manser is a lecturer at the university of Huddersfield and is currently researching Policing of English Fans with Dr. Clifford Stott at the University of Liverpool for the FA and the Home Office. Robin Manser is an avid supporter of Newcastle United, and Newcastle is where his daughters both live. Robin created his 'House and Toolbox Theory' which looks at antisocial behaviour from a number of roots and considers that no 'one' theory will answer the question as to why this phenomena occurs, but that an holistic approach is required. You can visit both of Robin's sites below, also please look at the contact details.

Policing English Fans

Research into Football Hooliganism

Tel:

07941 055720

E-mail:

manserrwg@btopenworld.com

Dougie Brimson

After 18 years serving with the RAF, including both the Falklands and Gulf conflicts, Dougie's writing career began in 1996 when, after a short spell working as a TV and film extra, he co-wrote the best-selling non-fiction work Everywhere We Go. A book which examined the culture of football and that has become essential reading for anyone with an interest in the game and its supporters. Three further non-fiction books followed and their success established the author as one of the worlds leading authorities on the issue of football hooliganism but in 1998, Dougie took a radical change of direction with the release of his first solo project, The Geezers Guide To Football. A comic parody of lads and their relationship with the great game. The book received widespread critical and public acclaim yet Dougie avoided the temptation to build on that when, in September 1999, he released The Crew. A hard-hitting thriller originally conceived following a meeting with the TV writer, Lynda La Plante. The book was an instant success and is currently being adapted for the big screen with filming due to start later this year. March 2000 saw a return to non-fiction with Barmy Army. A book described by one reviewer as the definitive examination of football and its culture. However, the success of this book merely spawned another change of direction and a welcome return to his comedy roots with Billy's Log. A light-hearted look at the hardships of life as a single male. Released in October 2000, the book was described by one reviewer as 'Bridget Jones's Diary meets Fever Pitch' and discussions are currently underway for the film rights. In March 2001, Dougie released his third book in 12 months a thriller entitled Top Dog. Set amongst the world of organised hooliganism in and around the East End of London, it has been reviewed as possibly the greatest ever work of football related fiction. An advisor to both the British governments anti-hooligan task force and the European commission football group, Dougie is widely acknowledged within the media as one of the leading experts on the culture of both 'lads' and football, Dougie has forged a reputation as a forthright and humorous talk show guest. His ability to discuss a wide range of issues whilst providing both strong opinion and ready wit continues to draw admiring comment from both producers and presenters alike. It also ensures that he is in constant demand. Aside from writing, Dougie has not been shy in branching out into other areas of the media. He has co-hosted a late night comedy show for 963 Liberty Radio in London, wrote and presented sports films for Bravo Television and produced and presented The Stock Car Show, for Granada Men & Motors. In 2000, he co-produced and presented a series for Granada television entitled Madder Maxx, which examined the diverse world of British motorsport. A role he is perfectly suited to having been involved with grass roots motor-racing for many years including successful spells in Autocross and Stock Cars. Indeed, he finished eighth in the 1988 World Banger Racing finals. The fact that Dougie's creative talents are so diverse has not gone unnoticed within the media industry and this has led to an increasing amount of work as an ideas consultant. In recent months he has been involved with the creation of two major Internet projects and was instrumental in developing the first ever on-line soap opera for children. Most recently, he has been developing a sports based drama for the BBC and working on a text-based game for one of the worlds leading computer game producers. An ex-Serviceman and highly qualified engineer, Dougie is an avid motorcyclist and has been happily married to Tina for over seventeen years. They have three children.

Favorite Links

Brimson.net

Web site dedicated to the work of the best-selling author and TV presenter.

John Bowlby

No variables have more far-reaching effects on personality development than a child's experiences within the family. Starting during his first months in his relation to both parents, he builds up working models of how attachment figures are likely to behave towards him in any of a variety of situations, and on all those models are based all his expectations, and therefore all his plans, for the rest of his life. Attachment and Loss (1973, p.369)

RELATED READINGS

John Bowlby : His Early Life : A Biographical Journey into the Roots of Attachment Theory Suzan Van Dijken / Hardcover / Published 1998

John Bowlby and Attachment Theory (The Makers of Modern Psychotherapy)

Jeremy Holmes / Paperback / Published 1993

Freud, A. [Psychoanal. Study Child 15:53] (1958). Discussion: John Bowlby's work on separation, grief, mourning.., WAF, 5:167-186.

Freud, A. [WAF 5:167] (1960). Discussion of J. Bowlby's 'Grief and mourning in infancy'., Psychoanal. Study Child, 15:53-62.

Hanly, C. (1978). A critical consideration of Bowlby's ethological theory anxiety.., Psychoanal. Q., 47:364-380.

Holmes, Jeremy. (1993). John Bowlby and Attachment Theory (Note: Review page numbers 1071-1074), London: Routledge

Hunter, Virginia (1991). John Bowlby: an interview, Psychoanal. Rev., 78:159-175

Pedder, J.R. (1976). Attachment and beginning: links between M.Balint and J.Bowlby.., Int. Rev. Psychoanal., 3:491-497.

Schur, M. (1960). Discussion of J. Bowlby's 'Grief and mourning in infancy'., Psychoanal. Study Child, 15:63-84.

Sedlak, Victor. (1995). Review of John Bowlby and Attachment Theory (Note: Review page numbers 1071-1074), Int. J. Psychoanal., 76:071-074.

Spitz, R. (1960). Discussion of J. Bowlby's 'Grief and mourning in infancy'., Psychoanal. Study Child, 15:85-94.

BOWLBY LINKS

AJP-Images in Psychiatry John Bowlby Biography

An Ethological Approach to Personality Development

Bowlby and Ainsworth Timeline Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bowlby, J. (1991). An ethological approach to persona lity development. American Psychologist, 46, 333-341.

Check the Attachment Resources here at Psyche Matters and the Child page

For a selection of additional authors visit the Bibliographies page.

Check the table of contents for additional Psychoanalytic and

Mental Health Professional Resource Pages available at Psyche Matters

Rorschach, Hermann

These pages are devoted to the presentation and promotion of the Rorschach method, concentrating on the way it has been practiced within the classical European tradition - from Hermann Rorschach himself in 1921, via Ewald Bohm in the 1950's, 1960's and 1970's, and to the contemporary workers in the Rorschach-Bohm tradition. You can here find basic information about Hermann Rorschach, about the different Rorschach traditions and the essential differences between them, and about the current scientific debate about the Rorschach test. There are also some links to other Web pages devoted to the Rorschach method.

The information on these pages has been carefully selected so that it can be made publicly available without interferring with the clinical and scientific use of the Rorschach test. Hence no specific information about the test procedure, about response categories and so on has been included, and of course no pictures of the Rorschach cards are shown.

Please follow this link:

http://www.phil.gu.se/fu/ro.html

The picture of Hermann Rorschach on this page is from H. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (Basic Books 1970). Reproduced with kind permission from Institut Henri Ellenberger, Paris.

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Contents:

Who was Hermann Rorschach?

The Rorschach traditions

The European way

American schools

Differences and controversies

Using the Rorschach method in patients with brain damage

Theoretical issues: Perceptual and cognitive processes in the Rorschach

Full texts and downloadable Rorschach stuff

Special report: Memories from the 5th ERA Congress

External links (Rorschach and related):

XVIIth International Congress of Rorschach and Other Projetive Methods (Rome, Sept. 8-14, 2002)

The International Rorschach Society (a list of all national societies can be found there)

European Rorschach Association (ERA)

The Swedish Rorschach Society(in Swedish)

The Society for Personality Assessment (SPA; an American association with long traditions. Responsible for the Journal of Personality Assessment)

Rorschach Inkblot Test (useful American page with mainly Exnerian stuff)

Rorschach Information and Discussion list This is a high quality discussion list centering on the CS Rorschach, but open also for near-lying topics. A great number of archived messages are available for members of the list.

Projectives list This e-mail discussion list is devoted to projective techniques, including Rorschach systems other than the CS.

Hans Huber AG (Seattle/Toronto/Switzerland/Germany. Sellers of the test material and the basic European books)

PAR (Psychological Assessment Resources) (American distributors of Exner stuff, including a training program for Windows: Rorschach Trainer)

Psimatica (among other things, European distributors of the Exner system)

Ror-Scan (a scoring and interpretation program for the Exner system)

In memory of Bruno Klopfer (an interesting website dedicated to this Rorschach pioneer)

Quality of life in severe epilepsy (an ongoing Swedish research project using the Rorschach test)

Leopold Szondi Forum (a Swedish page devoted to another projective method)

Philosophy of Cognition, Göteborg University (a mixed lot, but the Rorschach specialist may find something of interest among the online papers and posters).

Bandura, Albert (1925-)

In the early 1960s, Albert Bandura began a series of writings that challenged the older explanations of imitative learning and expand the topic into what is now referred to as Observational Learning. According to Bandura, observation learning may or may not involve imitation. For example if you see someone driving in front of you hit a pothole, and then you swerve to miss it - you learned from observational learning, not imitation. What you learned was information in which you processed cognitively and then acted upon. Observational learning is much more complex than simple imitation. Bandura's theory is often referred to as "social learning theory" as it emphasizes the role of vicarious experience (observation) of people impacting people (models). Modeling has several affects on learners:

Acquisition - New responses are learned by observing the model.

Inhibition - A response that otherwise may be made is changed when the observer sees a model being punished.

Disinhibition - A reduction in fear by observing a model's behavior go unpunished in a feared activity.

Facilitation - A model elicits from an observer a response that has already been learned.

Creativity - Observing several models performing and then adapting a combination of characteristics or styles.

In one experiment, twenty-four preschool children were assigned to each of three conditions. One group observed aggressive adult models; a second observed inhibited non-aggressive models; while the control group had no prior exposure to the models. Subjects were then tested for the amount of imitative as well as nonimitative aggression performed in a new situation in the absence of the models. Comparison of the subjects' behavior in the generalization situation revealed that subjects exposed to aggressive models reproduced a good deal of aggression resembling that of the models, and that their mean scores differed markedly from those of subjects in the nonaggressive and control groups. Subjects in the aggressive condition also exhibited significantly more partially imitative and nonimitative aggressive behavior and were generally less inhibited in their behavior than subjects in the nonaggressive condition.

- Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Aggressive Models, Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila A. Ross (1961): First published in Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.

Cuing

Cuing refers to actions that make stimuli more salient and thus more likely to be noticed. Attention can be cued directly, e.g., "Watch this!", or indirectly, e.g., "I wonder what will happen when I push this button?" In general, cuing includes the directing of attention through pointing, holding objects up for viewing, telling learners where to look, or asking questions that will cause them to process information and find the appropriate stimulus.

Self-Efficacy

Bandura also researched self-efficacy. This is part of our "self system" that helps us to evaluate our performance. Perceived self-efficacy refers to one's impression of what one is capable of doing. This comes from a variety of sources, such as personal accomplishments and failures, seeing others who are similar to oneself, and verbal persuasion. Verbal persuasion may temporarily convince people that they should try or avoid some task, but in the final analysis it is one's direct or vicarious experience with success or failure that will most strongly influence one's self-efficacy. For example, a coach may "fire-up" her team before a game by telling the team how great they are, but the enthusiasm will be short-lived if the opposing team is clearly superior. People with high perceived self-efficacy try more, accomplish more, and persist longer at a tank than people with low perceived self-efficacy. Bandura speculated that this is because people with high perceived self-efficacy tend to have more control over their environment and therefore experience less uncertainty. Also, one's perceived self-efficacy may not correspond to one's real self-efficacy

Helen Bee

Cultural Differences

Most research on childhood is conducted in Western, industrial cultures. However, there is a growing body of cross-cultural studies highlighting both similarities and differences in childhood around the world. Secure maternal attachment, for example, is less common in Germany, a culture that values autonomy, than in Japan, a culture that values community. Guatemalan mothers always sleep with their babies, who fall asleep without the rituals and problems typical among American babies. Attitudes toward school achievement also vary. Japanese and Chinese mothers expect more from their children than do American mothers, and their children outperform Americans. Some children spend their first years in constant proximity to their mother, some in day care centers. Some children watch younger siblings or work in factories, some attend school. Some children live in extended families, an increasing number live with a single parent. Despite these differences, however, children everywhere show a zest for learning, play, and friendship, and a drive to make sense out of their ever-changing world.

Further Reading

For Your Information

Bee, Helen. The Developing Child. 9th ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers, Inc., 1997.

Casey, James. The History of the Family. Colchester, VT: Basil Blackwell Inc., 1989.

Harris, Judith Rich. The Nurture Assumption. New York: The Free Press, 1998.

Kagan, Jerome. The Nature of the Child. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1994.

Kalat, James W. Introduction to Psychology. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1998.

"Linking Cleft Palates and Smoking Moms." New York Times (11 April 2000): D8.

Monastersky, Richard. "A New Round of Research Rattles Old Ideas of How Infants Interpret the World." The Chronical of Higher Education (24 March 2000): A22.

Nairne, James S. The Adaptive Mind. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1997.

Rawson, Beryl, ed. Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1996.

Wood, Samuel E. and Ellen Green Wood. The World of Psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1996.

Margaret Mead (Anthropologist)

After attending the Doylestown High School and the New Hope School for Girls, both in Pennsylvania, Margaret Mead enrolled at DePauw University at Greencastle, Indiana in 1919. Her own wish was to become a painter but her father and mother, a professor of economics and a sociologist respectively, had reared her to be a social scientist. Her intention was to major in English at DePauw but after one year, she entered Barnard College, Columbia University. It was here that Margaret Mead decided to make anthropology her field. A Phi Beta Kappa student, she received her B.A. degree from Barnard in 1923 and her M.A. degree, in psychology, from Columbia in 1924. In 1925 she completed her doctoral thesis but did not receive her Ph.D. from Columbia until 1929. In 1940, Dr. Mead was the recipient of her first honorary degree, D.Sc. from Wilson College, Chambersburg, Pennsylvania and the Chi Omega sororities annual achievement award. Subsequent honorary D.Sc. degrees conferred on Dr. Mead were from Rutgers University in 1941 and Elmira College in 1947.

Margaret Mead is a specialist in what she herself describes as "conditioning of the social personalities of both sexes." Her mother, a pioneer in child psychology, taught her to take notes on the behavior of younger children before she was eight years old. Her first field work, in the Samoan Islands, was undertaken in 1925-26. In 1925, too, Miss Mead obtained a National Research Council fellowship and an appointment as associate at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu. On her return to the United States in 1926, Miss Mead was appointed assistant curator of ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History. She has been attached to the museum ever since, becoming an associate curator in 1942. A second field work, the Manus Tribe of the Admiralty Islands in the West Pacific Ocean, was made possible by a Social Science Research Council Fellowship in 1928-29. In 1930, Dr. Mead began her third field trip, this time to study an American Indian Tribe the identity of which is concealed by the name of "the Antlers" in her book reporting her findings and conclusions. Between 1931 and 1933, Dr. Mead was again in the New Guinea area investigating three contrasted tribes, the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the Tchambuli; her part in the work was financed by the Voss Research Fund of the American Museum of Natural History. For three years, starting in 1936, Dr. Mead was engaged in field work in Bali and New Guinea. Then, in 1939, Dr. Mead began two years as a visiting lecturer at Vassar College. Dr. Mead during World War II wrote pamphlets and interpreted American GI's to the British. She also served as executive secretary of the Committee on Food Habits, the National Research Council, from 1942-45. She was a visiting lecturer at Teachers College from 1947-51 and has served as consultant on mental health, as a member of the Committee on Research of the Mental Health Division of the National Advisory Mental Health Council of the United States Public Health Service, and as a member of the interim governing board of the International Mental Health Congress. She was also secretary of the Institute for Intercultural Studies, a member of the American Anthropological Society, the American Ethnological Society, the Society of Applied Anthropology of which she was president in 1949, the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Science and a number of other science bodies, as well as of the American Association of American Women and the Society for Women Geographers, which awarded her a gold medal in 1942. She is a fellow of the American Society for Orthopsychiatry, and in 1951 served as vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Council of Learned Societies. Today, Dr. Mead is Curator Emeritus of the American Museum of Natural History but remains active as a participant in scientific meetings and similar activities. She always found her profession so diversified that she has not felt need for a hobby; she reportedly enjoys the theater and reads good poetry.

Erich Fromm (1900 - 1980)

Biography

Erich Fromm was born in 1900 in Frankfurt, Germany. His father was a business man and, according to Erich, rather moody. His mother was frequently depressed. In other words, like quite a few of the people we've looked at, his childhood wasn't very happy.

Like Jung, Erich came from a very religious family, in his case orthodox Jews. Fromm himself later became what he called an atheistic mystic.

In his autobiography, Beyond the Chains of Illusion, Fromm talks about two events in his early adolescence that started him along his path. The first involved a friend of the family's:

Maybe she was 25 years of age; she was beautiful, attractive, and in addition a painter, the first painter I ever knew. I remember having heard that she had been engaged but after some time had broken the engagement; I remember that she was almost invariably in the company of her widowed father. As I remember him, he was an old, uninteresting, and rather unattractive man, or so I thought (maybe my judgment was somewhat biased by jealousy). Then one day I heard the shocking news: her father had died, and immediately afterwards, she had killed herself and left a will which stipulated that she wanted to be buried with her father. (p. 4)

As you can imagine, this news hit the 12 year old Erich hard, and he found himself asking what many of us might ask: why? Later, he began finding some answers -- partial ones, admittedly -- in Freud.

The second event was even larger: World War I. At the tender age of 14, he saw the extremes that nationalism could go to. All around him, he heard the message: We (Germans, or more precisely, Christian Germans) are great; They (the English and their allies) are cheap mercenaries. The hatred, the "war hysteria," frightened him, as well it should.

So again he wanted to understand something irrational -- the irrationality of mass behavior -- and he found some answers, this time in the writings of Karl Marx.

To finish Fromm's story, he received his PhD from Heidelberg in 1922 and began a career as a psychotherapist. He moved to the U.S. in 1934 -- a popular time for leaving Germany! -- and settled in New York City, where he met many of the other great refugee thinkers that gathered there, including Karen Horney, with whom he had an affair.

Toward the end of his career, he moved to Mexico City to teach. He had done considerable research into the relationship between economic class and personality types there. He died in 1980 in Switzerland.

Theory

As his biography suggests, Fromm's theory is a rather unique blend of Freud and Marx. Freud, of course, emphasized the unconscious, biological drives, repression, and so on. In other words, Freud postulated that our characters were determined by biology. Marx, on the other hand, saw people as determined by their society, and most especially by their economic systems.

He added to this mix of two deterministic systems something quite foreign to them: The idea of freedom. He allows people to transcend the determinisms that Freud and Marx attribute to them. In fact, Fromm makes freedom the central characteristic of human nature!

There are, Fromm points out, examples where determinism alone operates. A good example of nearly pure biological determinism, ala Freud, is animals (at least simple ones). Animals don't worry about freedom -- their instincts take care of everything. Woodchucks, for example, don't need career counseling to decide what they are going to be when they grow up: They are going to be woodchucks!

A good example of socioeconomic determinism, ala Marx, is the traditional society of the Middle Ages. Just like woodchucks, few people in the Middle Ages needed career counseling: They had fate, the Great Chain of Being, to tell them what to do. Basically, if your father was a peasant, you'd be a peasant. If your father was a king, that's what you'd become. And if you were a woman, well, there was only one role for women.

Today, we might look at life in the Middle Ages, or life as an animal, and cringe. But the fact is that the lack of freedom represented by biological or social determinism is easy. Your life has structure, meaning, there are no doubts, no cause for soul-searching, you fit in and never suffered an identity crisis.

MORE - http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/fromm.html